TED Case Studies

Case Study 495
Jaguar Hunting and Trade

IDENTIFICATION
LEGAL CLUSTERS
GEOGRAPHIC CLUSTERS
TRADE CLUSTERS
ENVIRONMENT CLUSTERS
OTHER FACTORS

I. Identification

1. The Issue

In 1997 Venezuela petitioned to amend the CITES agreement to allow limited sport hunting (20 to 30 animals per year) of jaguars for export beginning in the year 2000. If this amendment becomes law, what effect will it have on the survival of the species? Currently jaguars and all big cats are protected from sport hunting for trade purposes by CITES, the Convention on International Trade of Endangered Flora and Fauna. Venezuela claims it is seeking the trophy hunting quota because currently a certain number of jaguars are killed annually by domestic land owners to control predation of livestock. In theory, allowing foreign hunters to take some animals would encourage domestic landowners to allow the jaguar to remain on private lands since the foreign sport hunters would be taking the "nuisance animals" from private lands. According to the CITES regulations, the amendment of Appendix 1 which currently protects the jaguar would mean that all parties which have signed CITES agree that neither the export of the quota nor the purposes of the import will be detrimental to the survival of the species overall. Appendix 1 has been amended in a similar fashion to allow limited export of cheetahs and leopards. Currently there is considerable dispute over the number of wild jaguars remaining in Venezuela, and the risk to the survival of the species. Domestic hunting of the jaguar is prohibited by national law in eleven countries in South America, and limited to hunting of jaguars on private lands in five other countries. Venezuela does have a significant proportion of the total number of jaguars remaining in the wild, several thousand according to an estimate done in 1986. Hunting of jaguars in Venezuela has been illegal since 1992. While it is unlikely that the killing of 20-30 animals a year would negatively impact the species in the short term, it has not been established that the population numbers are stable and it is not clear what the long-term results would be for the species.

2. Description

Characteristics of Jaguars

The Jaguar, Panthera Onca, once enjoyed a wide distribution across much of central and south America, into the southwestern United States. Now limited to rural pockets of Venezuela and neighboring countries, its numbers have been dwindling for decades. While it is difficult to obtain accurate counts of wild jaguars, their total number in all of Latin America is estimated at no more than 15,000 animals, mostly in the southern part of the range. There are eight subspecies of the jaguar, and all are endangered. Jaguars reach sexual maturity at approximately three years of age and have annual litters of cubs, typically 1 - 4 cubs. The lifespan is estimated at 22 years in the wild. The cat lives in a variety of habitats, from grasslands to forested areas, but it prefers to be near a source of water. Jaguars are the largest cat in the Americas, reaching a size of 100 to 200 lbs by adulthood (Source: University of Michigan web page). Due to their size and carnivorous feeding habits they have long been considered a menace to farmers and cattle ranchers, and a potential threat to humans living in rural areas. Jaguars have an advantage over smaller cats in that they can hunt for a wider variety of game, including livestock. Jaguars will roam up to 200 miles in search of food, making it difficult to determine where an animal will choose to hunt. Cattle ranchers concerned about the safety of livestock can't easily discern if livestock is being attacked by a particular jaguar, or even another large cat such as a leopard. (Image courtesy of www.belizenet.com)

Culture and the Jaguar

The jaguar figures prominently in the culture and mythology of indigenous groups in the Americas as one of the dominant symbols of power, strength and success. Much of the ancient Olmec and Chavin art depicts gods as part-feline and part-human. The Mochica people of Peru have depicted jaguars in pottery since 200 BC and jaguar cubs were used for ritual sacrifice. Ancient jaguar carvings have been found in jade, obsidian, basalt and other materials. (Source: Saunders, p. 138) This symbolism was an important part of guaranteeing successful hunting by warriors. Jaguars have long been associated with supernatural power and associated with religious ceremonies. To indicate social status, alters, thrones and sarcophogi were decorated with feline images by the Olmec and others. The Aztecs named a month in their calendar for the jaguar and to be born under that month was particularly auspicious. The Aztecs also believed that the spirit of the jaguar controlled rain and lightning. Jaguar imagery and skins have been used by Mayan lords for throne covers and other ceremonial symbolism of power. The Pre-Columbian people of Latin America were entirely dependent on their jungle environment for its resources, but they also recognized its dangers and limitations and considered themselves to be a part of the natural world, as evidenced by their art and temples. The jaguar remains the dominant animal symbol in Latin America with ceremonial masks of "el tigre", as the jaguar is called. There is an inherent conflict between those that would honor the jaguar for its spiritual and cultural importance and those that would hunt the species into extinction without regard for its historical importance in the traditional cultures of Latin America.

Conservation Efforts

There are numerous national and international organizations working to promote Jaguar conservation, research and education. Due to the CITES convention and national legislation prohibiting trade in jaguars, there is little trade in jaguars today (between 1990 and 1994 only 16 skins were reported in trade, down from 2,000 between 1976 and 1989) and the main threat to the species is loss of habitat and hunting on private lands. Prior to the signing of the CITES treaty which came into force in 1975, jaguars and other big cats were hunted extensively for international trade. Products such as fur coats from jaguars sold in major cities around the world for thousands of dollars creating a strong economic incentive for sport hunting. Today the threat facing jaguars is still economic, but it primarily concerns the use of land for economic objectives. It is unlikely given the economic and political forces at work in modern Venezuela that the current trend of habitat loss will be reversed. The jaguar is in a no-win situation: if the species succeeds in increasing its numbers in the wild, that will provide justification for hunting to control its numbers. If the habitat continues to shrink, the species can not possibly survive in the long-term. The problem of habitat loss affects the animals in many ways, including their ability to hunt successfully, the quantity and diversity of food and water, the likelihood of successful breeding, and their ability to protect themselves from manmade dangers such as roads, fences and other structures. Given this trend towards habitat loss, the outlook for the survival of all wild cats is very poor in the long-term. Currently the domestic farmers who kill the cats on their land are as much a threat to the species as sport hunters killing the cats for entertainment and there is no comprehensive plan to provide farmers with incentives to allow cats near or on private lands to live unmolested. Because of the difficulties of large scale habitat preservation, conservation centers such as The Belize Zoo which specialize in endangered species will be crucial to the survival of the species. If captive breeding programs had wide public support, habitat protection would in turn be supported. Tourism revenue is one obvious area where governments might be induced to protect the species and habitat but currently this is an undeveloped market in Venezuela.

The environment of Latin America is much different from what it was in ancient times. Latin America has not only become increasingly urban, it has become increasingly hot and dry; less suited to the jaguar and its prey. Currently much of Latin America is faced with very visible reminders of environmental destruction: deforestation, erosion and salinization of the water and soil. Even these very obvious indicators are not enough to stem the tide of industrialization, urbanization and large scale farming. In comparison the threat to species such as the secretive jaguar are unrecognized and unheeded by the average citizen.

3. Related Cases

4. Draft Author:

Jo Dickison

June 30, 1998

II. Legal Clusters

5. Discourse and Status:

Disagree and in progress

6. Forum and Scope:

CITES and Multilateral

7. Decision Breadth:

Number of Parties affected: 16

8. Legal Standing:

Treaty

The Jaguar is an endangered species and is listed in Appendix 1 of the CITES Treaty. It is also protected by national legislation in 16 countries in Latin America, and by the Endangered Species Act in the United States, which bans all imports of big cat products such as skins, stuffed trophies and clothing made from cats skins. Enforcement of the CITES Treaty is left to each Party to develop national legislation and to enforce the treaty. Unfortunately, today enforcement and interpretation of conservation treaties varies widely through the region. Mexico which did not sign the CITES Agreement until 1992, was the major gateway for smuggling species out of Latin America for years, but now that trade has lessened. Bolivia and Paraguay are also known for lax enforcement of CITES and many forged or stolen export permits appear to originate from these countries (Source: Fitzgerald, p. 20) It is especially important that all the countries in the jaguars range adhere to national and international legislation regarding sport hunting because the cats cross national boundaries. The next CITES Conference of Parties will occur in 1999 where member countries will discuss and vote on pending amendments.

III. Geographic Clusters

9. Geographic Locations

a. Geographic Domain: South America

b. Geographic Site: Eastern South America

c. Geographic Impact: Venezuela

10. Sub-National Factors:

Yes

11. Type of Habitat:

Grasslands, Forests and Swamplands.

The jaguar is in direct competition with man for these shrinking natural areas. Large scale farming, industrialization and the pollution that accompanies human activities have a direct impact on the survival of the species, particularly its ability to hunt and reproduce. The jaguar is an important predator in the ecological system and the loss of the species would impact other animals, both natural prey and other predators.

IV. Trade Clusters

12. Type of Measure:

Export Ban [EXBAN]

13. Direct v. Indirect Impacts:

[DIR]Direct

14. Relation of Trade Measure to Environmental Impact

a. Directly Related to Product: Yes, Jaguar

b. Indirectly Related to Product: No

c. Not Related to Product: No

d. Related to Process: Yes, Species Loss Land [SPLL]

15. Trade Product Identification:

Jaguar

16. Economic Data

The economic cost of preserving the natural habitat of the jaguar is considerable, especially when taking into consideration that there is little direct economic gain from preserving the species in the wild. To date there is not a large tourism market focused on viewing jaguars in their habitat. Farmers and ranchers have a powerful lobby to oppose conservation efforts based on their claims of economic loss from predation and the potential economic benefits of using undeveloped land for agriculture, grazing and logging.

17. Impact of Trade Restriction:

High

18. Industry Sector:

Craft

19. Exporters and Importers:

Venezuela and Many

Illegal trade has been reported on a small level, with exports from Bolivia, Brazil, Mexico and Paraguay between 1976-1994. Canada and the USA were the main countries of import, according to the IUCN.

V. Environment Clusters

20. Environmental Problem Type:

Species Loss Land (SPLL)

21. Name, Type, and Diversity of Species

Name: Jaguar

Type: Panthera Onca

Diversity: 8 subspecies

22. Resource Impact and Effect:

High and Scale

23. Urgency and Lifetime:

Currently there are less than 15,000 jaguars left in the wild and their habitats are shrinking rapidly. According to the World Conservation Union (IUCN), 67% of the available habitat in the northern range of the cat has been eliminated already. Jaguars are not prolific breeders, having only one small litter of kits per year. The lifespan in the wild is approximately 22 years. The jaguar is not currently listed by IUCN as globally threatened.

24. Substitutes:

Substitutes for furs are available.

VI. Other Factors

25. Culture:

Although the symbolic importance of jaguars remains strong in Latin America, there is no indication of political support for the species on behalf of indigenous groups or others with cultural connections to the jaguar. Just as indigenous cultures themselves are at risk of extinction, the ancient symbols of these cultures face extinction at the hands of modern society. Sadly, international trade in skins from wealthy North American hunters has played a significant part mn the decline of the jaguar and there has never been organized support from Venezuelan cultural groups to preserve the species for cultural reasons. Without a determined, politically-savvy resistance by indigenous groups, the ancient cultures of latin America and the jaguar will likely be nothing more than museum artifacts within a few decades, and Latin America will have lost part of its cultural heritage.

26. Trans-Boundary Issues:

Yes

27. Rights:

28. Relevant Literature

The following are books and web sites with more information about the CITES convention, jaguar behavior and habitat, and culture and symbolism in Latin America. A good way to begin a web search for more information is to use the keyword panthera onca.

1. Fitzgerald, Sarah. International Wildlife Trade: Whose Business Is It? World Wildlife Fund, Washington, DC. 1989.

2. Hemley, Ginette (ed). International Wildlife Trade: A CITES Sourcebook. World Wildlife Fund, Washington, DC. 1994.

3.Simonian, Lane. Defending the Land of the Jaguar. University of Texas Press, Austin, TX. 1995.

4.Saunders, Nicholas J. People of the Jaguar: The Living Spirit of Ancient America. Souvenir Press, London. 1989.

5. http://lynx.uio.no/catfolk.htm

This is another site from the World Conservation Union and is an excellent source of data on jaguar behavior, habitat, biology and population status. References are included.

6. www.oit.itd.umich.edu/bio/doc.cgi/Chordata/Mammalia/Carnivora/Felidae/Panthera_onca.ftl

This site from the University of Michigan Museum of Zoology has a wealth of detailed zoological information about jaguars, the natural history of the species and their characteristics. There is a photo gallery as well.

7. www.belizenet.com/zoo/zoo/mammals/jag/jag4.html

This site is part of the Belize Zoo web site and is a good source of introductory information on all the endangered species in the region.

8. www.cathouse-fcc.org

This site is the Feline Conservation Center in Rosamond, California. The Center specializes in felines and has 14 species represented. The site contains information about the Center, photos and links to other related sites.

email author at: cd8983a@american.edu