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I. Identification The populations of numerous species of
mussel (also mollusk, and mollusk) are classified as
"threatened" in several freshwater rivers and waterways
of the midwestern United States. Environmental agencies and
researchers have made this classification due to the decreasing
stocks of the species within the past decade. The primary cause
for this reduction is believed to be due to non-specific
pollution from coastal/urban areas and agricultural/industrial
runoff into rivers/waterways. But with the passage of
stronger anti-pollution statues in the past fifteen years, this
causal variable seems to have diminished as the most significant
problem. Mussel harvesting, a now popular activity in
freshwater areas, is now the new cause for concern in the
sustainability of several specific existing populations.
Whereas saltwater mussels (common blue mussel) are primarily
harvested for consumption as a delicacy in many countries most
noteably France, freshwater mussels are harvested for usage in
manufacturing cultured pearl jewelry.
Freshwater mussel habitats are smaller, more
unique, and more vulnerable to toxins and ecological change than
those of other aquadic creatures. As filter feeders,
consuming algae and microscopic organisms in the water, these
species are a crucial, and overlooked link to the food chain
within their particular aquatic environment. The
elimination of a mussel population in an aquatic ecosystem can
lead to suffocating bateriological or algae infestation.
The resulting effect renders the area uninhabitable to most other
organisms and can lead to disease in other creatures.
The species of freshwater mussel desired by the pearl industry is located mostly in the United States and in New Zealand. The pearl jewelry industry is located primarily in several southeast Asian countries, such as Japan, and South Korea. Therefore, this case illustrates an interesting mixture of economic forces that affect the environment, the native US mussel population specifically, because of cultural and international industry demands.
The freshwater harvesting of
mussels in the rivers of the midwestern United States is a
profitable industry. In contrast to their seawater cousins
who are enjoyed in restaurants andhomes around the world, the
meat of freshwater mussels is discarded and the shell is packed
and exported for use in pearls cultivation. The manufacturingbase
and market for this industry is in East Asia and Japan known for
a rich cultural history in pearls jewelry.
The habitat of the mussel, near the shores,
and in riverbeds of mud and sand, makes them easily accessible
with or without expensive equipment. The extensive network
of rivers andwaterways makes the tasks of monitoring harvesting
difficult. Ruralareas with hundreds of miles of rivers
systems provide easy access andmobility for creating unregulated
profits from the mussel shell trade. This market creates
tremendous incentives for individuals to harvest mussels
regardless of their protection under regulations from the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
The threatened species of mussels have a long
lifespans, from 2, for the soft-shell mussel, to 70 years for
endangered species such as the Nore mussel
(Margaritifera durrovensis) of Ireland. More
importantly, they have a long period of maturity before achieving
reproductive age. (see Nore Mussel in Bibliography) Thus,
the rise and attraction of harvesting is likely to wipe out some
species entirely within decades. In addition to over
harvesting and pollution a new threat to the freshwater mussel
has emerged from within its own ranks. The now notorious Zebra
mussel is taking over the areas once held by the endangered
mussels. This non-native "exotic" species,
inadvertently brought from Europe through ballast tank expulsions
of freighter ships, have reeked havoc in drainage pipelines and
industrial equipment throughout the Great Lakes. Because of
its ability to reproduce much quicker than its American
counterparts, this the Zebra mussel has spread rapidly throughout
the habitats of the endangered mussels in a matter of a few
years. Zebra mussels concentrate quickly and establish
footholds nearly everywhere, including on other mussels
eventually killing them.
Without control and focused effort, several
freshwater mussel species of the United States are in
trouble. Conservation and research programs need to address
the three major factors causing the problem: pollution,
harvesting, and infestation. Shortly after the decision to
created this webpage on the topic of mussel population
loss, President Bill Clinton announced a large increase in
spending to clean up American waterways sufferring from
pollution. This proposal to inject 2.3 billion into clean
water projects and requirements over five years, may have been
coincidental, yet represents the largest spending of the type
since the passage fo the Clean Water Act of 1972. (Warrick,
Goodman, 1998)
Photo of native freshwater mussel encrusted
with
the "exotic" Zebra mussels.
See Sea Ballast and Zebra Mussels
See Nematode
See Medfly
See Crayfish
See Cajun
See Lobster
See Bluecrab
Michael C. E. Liles, Spring 1998
II. Legal ClustersDisagree and In Progress
Of the 297 mussel species and subspecies native to the United States (including salt water types), over 25 are on the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) list for decades. But the designation of threatened or endangered varies with state boundaries. Thus, the enforcement of the limits on local harvesting is varied and political. The market demand of freshwater shells for export is so high that the profit from illegal harvesting far outweighs the fines and penalties (Luoma, p. 53). The difficulty of proving the source of a harvest is next to impossible and the chance of catching illegal harvesters in the act is doubtful considering the manpower per hundreds of miles of rivers in states such as Tennessee, Kentucky, and Ohio.
USA and UNILATeral
The freshwater mussels that are threatened are almost entirely
native to the midwestern waterways of the United States.
Any governmental action against harvesting is therefore limited
to U.S. Federal and state regulation. Regulatory action on the
export of mussel shells would be politically difficult. The
japanese pearl cultivators import nearly all their mussel shells
from the United States because no other area in the world (except
to a small extent New Zealand) has the necessary species in
accessible quantity.
As signatories of the Convention on International Trade, both
countries have regulatory practices to control the populations of
the animal. In Japan, an application process monitors
importing of species that are classified in the appendixes of
CITES. Thus, the trade is regulated at both ends of the
route, though policitcal will to be strict is probably less so in
Japan than in the source country.
III. Geographic Clustersa. Geographic Domain: NAMER (North America)
b. Geographic Site: ENAMER (East North America)
c. Geographic Impact: USA
NO
The various states have the ability to assist in the enforcement of the laws to protect the mussel species making the sub-national character on this problem important. General pollution regulations and ordinances federal and local protect the cleanliness of the waterways which in a less direct way protects the habitat of the mussels.
OCEAN (Ocean coasts, rivers)
IV. Trade ClustersREGBAN
| The international freshwater pearl jewelry industry could be strongly affected by national regulation of freshwater mussel harvesting. |   |
a. Directly Related to Product: YES (Prohibiting the harvesting of mussels will directly impact the products exported (shells)
b. Indirectly Related to Product: YES (The jewelry industry)
c. Not Related to Product: NO
d. Related to Process: YES Species loss Sea
Mussel Shells
It is estimated that the mussel shell trade generates up to $50 million in revenue (1994) per year in among those in the industry. (Luoma, p 53)
N/A Data regarding trade of molluscs is not specific enough to determine possible costs
NOTH (Other) Sector: Jewelry manufacturing. Subsector: Pearl cultivation.
Case Exporter: Private firms in the United States. Several companies in the midwestern United States process mussels into shells for handling in export. The mussels are acquired by these firms through their own harvesting manpower and numerous individual, independent harvesters. No figures available. Case Importer: Regional, the South East Asian jewelry industry, primarily in Japan, Hong Kong, Taiwan, China, Singapore. The importers are located primarily in Southeast Asia. A long tradition in the pearl jewelry industry is rooted deeply in the economy and culture of the region.
V. Environment ClustersName: Commonly called Mollusc, Mollusk, or Mussel. The freshwater order that contains many shell organisms is Unionoida, and the class is Bivalvia to separate the single shell animals from those with two shells held together.. This class encompasses 60 families including clams and oysters. Mussels fall generally in the isofilibranchi family, of that, the genera in question are the Mytililus, Perna, Modiolus, Lithophaga. (common blue mussel is the Mytililus Edulis)
Type: Pollution, Over harvesting
Diversity:
IUCN Status: ENDANGered
The three most highly sought mussel species for pearl cultivation in Japan are: the Washboard (Mefalonaias nervosa), the Threeridge (Amblema plicata), and the Mapleleaf (Quadrula quadrula). (information provided by dept. of Commerce)
Other species that are imported to a smaller degree are: the Ebonyshell (Fusconaias ebena), the Wabash Pigtoe (Fusconaias flava), the Ohio Pigtoe (Pleurobema cordatum), and the Pimpleback (Quadrula pustulosa).
Other mussels that are on the CITES endangered list are: Fanshell (Cyprogenia stegaria), Curtus' mussel (Pleurobema curtum), Marshall's mussel (Pleurobema marshalli), Judge Tait's mussel (Pleurobema taitianum), Penitent mussel (Epioblasma penita), Stirrup shell (Quadrula stapes), Curtis Pearly mussel (Epioblasma florentina curtisi), Higgins' Eye mussel (lampsilis higginsi), Orangefoot Pimpleback (plethobasus cooperianus)
Impact:
[LOW]
The impact is expected to the environment in the short term is
unclear.
Effect:
[PROD]
The price of pearls will most likely rise as alternate sources
are sought.
Urgency: Low
Lifetime of Species: 7-70 years
VI.
Other FactorsNo. Many international cultures maintain demand for pearl jewelry. Culture is not a strong determinant.
No. Harvesting in the U.S. does not have an effect on other countries.
Asakawa, Tomohiro "Fishery Products Import Statistics
10/97" International Market Insight Series (Department of
State, U.S. Foreign and Commercial Service, 1997)
Bayne, B. L. (Ed) Marine Mussels: their Ecology and
Physiology. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1976), Chapters 1, 2, 3, 10
Beliaeff, B.; O'Connor, Thomas P.; Daskalakis, D. K.; Smith P.
J.; "U.S. Mussel Watch Data from 1986 to 1994: Temporal
Trend Detection at Large Spatial Scales" Envirnomental
Science & Technology 1997, Vol. 31, No. 5, pp.
1411-4
Benson, Amy J. Endangered Species Bulletin March-April 1996, Vol. XXI No. 2, pp. 14-5
Hartfield, Paul; Butler, Robert S. Endangered Species Bulletin March-April 1996, Vol. XXI No. 2, pp. 18-9
Luoma, Jon R. Audubon January-February 1997, pp. 50-58
Neves, Richard Endangered Species Bulletin March-April 1996, Vol. XXI No. 2, pp. 16-7
"Mussel Watch Measures Toxins," Envirnomental
Science & Technology March 1993, Vol. 5, No. 3, p.
23
"Japan, Shellfish Market Overview" Market Research
Report (Department of Commerce, International Trade
Administration), 9/29/95
Warrick, Joby and Goodman, Peter S. "President Proposes Spending Billions to Clean Polluted Waters" Washington Post, 20 February 1998, p. A15
Illinois
Natural History Survey (General infomation)
If you have any comments or suggestions that
would contribute to this case study, feel free to e-mail me.