Uganda, Tourism and Environment
CASE NUMBER: 209
CASE MNEMONIC: UGANDA
CASE NAME: Uganda, Tourism and Environment
I. INTRODUCTION
1. The Issue
Since its establishment in 1990, the World Bank and United Nations-based Global Environmental Facility (GEF) has paid ever increasing attention to the development and conservation potentials of ecotourism. While previous projects did have some ecotourism components, the GEF set a precedent in early 1995 by funding a US$4 millon ecotourism project in Uganda, and by wrapping up negotiations for a similar project in Zimbabwe. The concept of "ecotourism" is new and rather ambiguous, however, and what are assumed will be net positive environmental and economic impacts have yet to be conclusively established.
2. Description
Although estimates vary, the tourism industry is growing at an annual rate of four percent globally. Tourism is the world's fastest growing industry. The United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP) estimates that by the turn of the century, revenues will reach US$3.2 trillion. According to the World Tourism Organization (which estimates that the world tourism industry is already worth US$3.4 trillion in 1995), most of the increase in tourism revenues will be attributable to the rise of ecotourism.
Ecotourism is the fastest growing sector of the world's fastest growing industry, tourism. For many of the world's poorest countries, tourism is seen as a means of obtaining foreign exchange and of developing infrastructure. A country promoting low-impact, ecological tourism may be able to better avoid the adverse environmental effects of traditional tourism and from the sale of natural resources. Furthermore, since the sustainability of the ecotourism industry is dependent upon the preservation of environmental quality and biodiversity, it is felt that it can bolster conservation efforts. Ecotourism is appealing to tourists, environmentalists, businesses, and governments alike.
Low-impact, environment-friendly "ecotourism" is growing at a rate which ranges from 10 to 30 percent, making it one of the fastest growing sectors in the world economy. Within the growth of the ecotourism industry is the potential to foster environmentally and culturally beneficial growth. In an ideal world, this world occur without the interventions of opportunistic investors or of cash- and currency-deprived communities and governments. While the potential for negative exploitation of this emerging industry exists, it is nevertheless the lesser of many much more harmful options available to the world's struggling regions.
Carlos Castilho states that "[i]n recent years, no term in the modern lexicon has undergone such a radical change as eco-tourism. Five years ago most people related it to economy travel. Today, the combination of ecology and tourism has become a talisman for those who are anxiously searching for ways out of the world-wide economic recession, providing hope for poor nations." However, a recent report by the Caribbean Environment Programme of the UNEP states that "[a]ctivities which have little to do with the more restricted, conservationist concept are... labelled ecotourism."
Some of the basic principles of ecotourism include: catering to the environmentally and culturally-minded tourist; avoiding excessive - or any - negative cultural and environmental impacts associated with other forms of tourism; promoting conservation of natural resources; contributing to local or equitable economic development in rural or isolated backwaters; encouraging local participation in the development of tourism-related industries; and use of low-technology, low-impact infrastructure. The Secretary General of the Caribbean Tourism Organization, Jean S. Holder, sees the following characteristics as central to ecotourism: responsibility of travel agents and travellers; honesty in terms of the product being offered; and involvement and interaction for mutual benefit and respect.
Any venture with a mix of any of the previous elements - or without a single one - can label itself "ecotourist." It is not unknown for ventures which have follow none of the previous guiding principles to call themselves "eco" as well. For some, the criteria is more based on the amount of exposure to the elements or to "nature" than on the level of impact upon the environment or cultures. The list of invitees to an upcoming world conference on adventure travel and ecotourism stresses this - the World Bank, UN agencies, American Express and the Best Western International Coop. Participants will swim with dolphins, go on powerboat adventures and moonlight dinner and semi-submarine undersea cruises and attend seminars on promoting the growth of the industry. Since there is no body which monitors the correct use of the label "ecotourism," it is often up to local communities, NGOs, governments, and potential tourists to investigate the truth behind the claim of ecotourism.
In part, the lack of a standard-related definition may factor into ecotourism's popularity among investors. It is enticing to try to meet the high demand for an ambiguous product which requires less infrastructural investment than other ventures, which is virtually unregulated, and which attracts consumers willing to spend, basically, more for less. Indeed, there is growing exposure of instances in which what is advertised as ecotourism, with the implication that it is low-impact, in fact has adverse environmental and social impacts, and in which the expected economic benefits do not appear. In the case of one Nepalese village, locals retained less than 7 cents of every tourist dollar spent. Capital cities, national businesses, and governments fare little better. And, unless local and/or small-operator bargaining power is bolstered or ethical standards raised, growing foreign investment in ecotourism signifies that locals stand to benefit even less from the miracle development strategy being pushed by international financial institutions, aid agencies, and non- governmental organizations alike.
The country in focus in this case, Uganda, is emerging from years of political instability and entrenched poverty. Before Idi Amin took power in 1971, Uganda had a major tourism industry, but that crashed with the instability of the country. Today, tourism is picking up again, and Uganda, with diverse, yet endangered natural resources has found it preferable to pursue ecotourism for the main reason that conservation efforts need to be intensified, but also because tourism is one of the few products which it can trade in the international marketplace. Uganda is also receiving generous funding to support these efforts from international non- governmental organizations and financial institutions. A task force has prepared a National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP), which the government adopted in 1994. A recently funded Global Environmental Fund ecotourism project, Bwindi Impenetrable National Park (BINP) and Mgahinga Gorilla National Park (MGNP) Conservation, for conservation and tourism is but one of a planned series of actions to strengthen the implementation of the NEAP and gaining investments to help do so.
3. Related Cases
4. Draft Author: Cheryl M. Brown
II. LEGAL Filters
5. Discourse and Status
The are no international treaties regulating tourism or its offshoot, ecotourism. However, some treaties such as the Law of the Seas may marginally effect tourist operations. Similarly, national laws may regulate the use of resources by tourist enterprises, and the types and amount of pollution caused by them. Cases related to tourism have been brought before national courts in many instances; the review of the literature for this case study found none specifically brought against ecotourism ventures, but the nature of the ongoing research suggests that these may begin appearing in the future, especially given the boom in ecotourism.
Although indicative of some rise in environmental awareness, the rise in ecotourism in developing countries generally occurs simultaneously with the emergence of the world economy, reforms aimed at opening markets - including deregulation and privatization - and the growth in levels of foreign investment and policies which encourage it. Given the atmosphere conducive to increasingly unfettered free market activity around the world and the infant stages of discussions for regulating the industry, it is unlikely that cases presented by communities or NGOs will be able to very effectively confront the system supporting free trade in tourism - the World Trade Organization, transnational corporations, and the world's governments and other governing bodies. The creation of treaties and standards to which these bodies might be accountable are under discussion. Possible fora include the United Nations Environmental Program. Specific tourism-related treaties to which countries and agents voluntarily sign may also gain more universality. However, in an assessment of ecotourism in the region, the UNEP's Caribbean Environment Programme could only muster the following weak suggestions:
1) Since the environmental impact of ecotourism is usually
a matter of overload, responsible management of protected
areas attractive to ecotourists is essential.
2) Access fees for protected areas should be leveed, and
should cover not only overhead costs, but also the value of
the areas biodiversity, biotic resources, geological
formations, etc. as determined by the relative scarcity or
uniqueness of the resource which is the main attraction.
3) The State should turn over all or part of the management
of protected areas and tourist-industry related services to
the private (profit or non-profit) sector.
4) Non-protected areas which could be converted into
ecotourism sites should be identified.
5) Industry agents and tourist guides should be trained in
the principles of ecotourism project design and management.
6) Ecotourism itself should not be regulated. Rather, the
use of protected natural resources in ecotourism.
The CEP concludes with saying that "from an environmental point of view, the most appropriate approach is that which leads to the conclusion that the tourist industry must also regulate itself to avoid the negative environmental changes which can result from attempts to take advantage of natural and cultural attractions. Strictly speaking, these are not specific regulations for the tourist industry but general ones for all economic activity." Between these vague lines is the message that the Caribbean Environment Programme will not, at this point, by the place for the regulation of the tourism industry to take place. Regulations which are voluntary at some level are therefore more feasible options for the immediate term. Under Ugandan law, national parks and reserves have the highest conservation standards, and yet there are very limited resources to monitor that these are upheld. Within the GEF-funded project are mechanisms to provide funding for more efficient patrolling, and to provide economic opportunities to the poor farmers of surrounding communities who are most likely to disregard strict deforestation and harvesting laws. Education to help people understand the importance of conservation is an important component of the project. Media interest in the issue will be necessary for an effective campaign, and there seems to be growing coverage. Australian journalists and readers already seem interested in ecotourism and in false claims of supposed ecotourist agencies. Media awareness is spreading to the largest tourist-originating countries, the United States and Japan.At the national, regional, and international level, consumer campaigns could be an effective check on the unscrupulous activities of ecotourist agencies. Already, several internet conferences, including env.marine, green.travel and ips.english carry discussions and news stories on various aspects of ecotourism. Tourism is also a popular topic on the World Wide Web.
6. Forum and Scope
Even through it is studying and actively promoting tourism and, increasingly, ecotourism, as an economic growth strategy, the World Bank does not yet have an official sectoral policy. The GEF-funded Bwindi and Mgahinga Ecotourism Project does follow a strict and specific set of guidelines and principles as set forth in the Project Document. Any failure to adhere to these requirements could put further funding at risk.
Industry-wide standards do exist in the case of trade associations to which individual tourist agencies may or may not belong. In the case of ecotourism, the debate over imposed- or self-regulation has heated up since the London-based Panos Research Institute issued a bulletin with specific recommendations for the creation of ecotourism standards.
Panos is not alone in calling for the regulation of an industry in which often extremely fragile ecosystems and isolated communities face the dangers which accompany increasing visits from even highly-sensitive tourists. In 1993, the Vermont-based Ecotourism Society released its (voluntary) guidelines for nature tour operators. These include general principles on how to prepare travelers for their encounters with local cultures, native animals and plants, how to minimize environmental and cultural impacts, and how to promote local employment and jobs programs.
7. Decision Breadth
Eventual standards and regulations could effect local communities, individual operators, national trade associations, and international operators. Depending on the source of the regulation - whether it be an international body or national regulations which effect operators in the country in which they are based or where they conduct tours - those involved in the ecotourist trade could find themselves having to adhere to several sets of standards.
8. Legal Standing - N/A
III. GEOGRAPHIC Filters
9. Geographic Locations: AFR, EAFR
Ecotourists are visiting, without exception, every region of the world, with the greatest number travelling to Asia. The International Tourism Bourse expects that Africa will be the destination of more than 24 million foreigners, mostly from Europe, Japan, and North America, by the year 2000. This is 60 percent more than the number of visitors in 1990. Uganda is in Eastern Africa, a region well known for its safaris and savannahs. Uganda is well poised to take advantage of the pent-up demand as the similar environments in neighboring countries - Zaire and Rwanda - are closed to tourists due to political instability.
10. Sub-National Factors
While the Ugandan National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP) covers the entire country, there is the likelihood that it will only be effectively implemented, at least at first, in those areas which can support in with revenues obtained from tourism or other foreign ventures. The management of a game reserve in southwestern Bushenyi District of Uganda was handed over to an Austrian company in 1993 for ten years. While the foreign firm will have to abide by governmental regulations (presumably as defined in the NEAP), must allow monitoring, and will give the Ugandan government and local communities a portion of revenues, the supervision of this is likely to be inadequate by the already-stressed local authorities. Ironically, areas which might be in better shape, from the viewpoint of biodiversity or conservation needs, may therefore benefit less from ecotourism than others. Likewise, given that the revenues from ecotourism do get turned over to local communities and governments will be limited and that the benefits will therefore be distributed only to areas immediately adjacent to the parks, the Ugandan ecotourism project is questionable as a regional and long-term development or conservation project.
11. Type of Habitat - TROP
Uganda is a unique African country for its diversity of habitats. Within its boundaries are tall mountain, great lakes, and savannahs. For a country its size, Uganda has the greatest biodiversity of any African nation, including East African savannah and mid- and high-altitude rainforest species. Living in Uganda's Bwindi National Park is the world's largest population of the endangered Mountain Gorilla: about 300 gorillas living in 50 troops. About three troops live in the Mgahinga Gorilla National Park on the borders of Rwanda and Zaire.
IV. TRADE Filters
12. Type of Measure - REGSTD, NGO
There is no case of any country banning tourists from another country simply due to the environmentally destructive habits of its citizens or businesses. The dominance of free trade in the world contributes greatly to this. In all but a few cases, it is increasingly possible for tourists to visit the destiny of their choice. Visa requirements for citizens of Japan and European and North American countries are made less stringent by more and more tourist-dollar hungry countries. Travel restrictions do exist, but, in the case of the rich countries, these tend to be suggested or imposed by governments on their citizens rather than by destination countries. The United States is especially conservative in this respect - upholding travel bans on Cuba and Afghanistan for ideological reasons.
There are, however, bans and strict guidelines on access to delicate regions within countries. Gorilla tourism in Uganda was halted [BAN] for several years due to high risks to the gorillas from too much contact with human beings. When the tourism picked up again, it was highly monitored, and biologist-recommended limitations to contact were imposed.
Environmental and development NGOs and governmental subsidies, in the form of loans and tax breaks, figure highly in the development of ecotourism industries throughout the world.
13. Direct vs. Indirect Impacts - DIR
Rather than to look at trade restrictions, in this case it is necessary to look at the concessions, subsidies, investments, and marketing expenses incurred by the host government or region. Are the revenues generated by tourism or ecotourism sufficient to justify the expenditures? It is especially important to incorporate assessments of environmental degradation or conservation into the accounting of the net economic impacts.
14. Relation of Trade Measure to Resource Impact
Directly Related - Yes and ecotourism
Indirectly Related - Yes and natural environment
Not Related - Yes and local communities
Process - Yes and related services
The loosely self-imposed standards of the ecotourism industry encourage the conservation of resources. In the case of projects funded by international donors and environmental groups, these conservation efforts become explicit.
15. Trade Product Identification
Natural Environments, Endangered Species, and Culture 16. Economic Data
Foreign-exchange strapped nations have long-attempted to develop their tourism sectors because of the foreign currency which tourists bring with them. It is also seen as opening up opportunities for foreign investment, infrastructure development, regional planning, access to technologies, and international prestige. The inputs needed for gains are readily available to many underdeveloped regions, in developing and industrial countries alike: sun, sea and other water bodies, sand, unique and beautiful environments, wildlife, historic ruins, and exotic cultures. High users fees can be charged to ecotourists. Visitors to gorilla habitats in Zaire and Rwanda are charged between $100 and $160 a visit.
Now, tourism and ecotourism can even bring in loans or grants from international institutions such as the World Bank along with tourist dollars. The US$4.8 million conservation project in Uganda is quite a large sum of money for a country which currently owes over US$2 billion to the World Bank alone. The World Wide Fund for Nature estimates for 1988 found that slightly more that 20 percent of ecotourism revenues (US$12 billion out of US$55 billion) were earned in the global South. However, a study by the same outfit in the Annapurna region of Central Nepal, discovered that only 20 cents out of the average US$3 spent per trekker per day stayed in the local economy. Unfortunately, there is a paucity of other such assessments, especially in terms of initial outlays by local communities and governments.
17. Impact of Trade Restriction - N/A
18. Industry Sector - TOUR
The production of local handmade goods [TEXT], [LEATH], [NOTH], [SOTH] may also increase. 19. Exporter and Importer
In the case of ecotourism as a development strategy, it is better to look at foreign investors and local producers rather than concentrate on exporters and importers if economic impacts at the local or national are of interest. However, the main tourist exporters are the OECD countries. The most attractive ecotourist destination is Asia. Uganda's tourism industry is extremely small and rather limited by its recent history and its delicate ecosystems, but is growing. There is cause to fear that some of the ecosystem may be further sacrificed to gain more tourist revenues, especially given the fact that local populations have been less than effectively convinced to strictly follow conservation guidelines.
V. ENVIRONMENT Filters
20. Environment Problem Type - [DEFOR] [SPLL] [HABIT] [BIODIV] [POLL]
There are several environmental problems in and around the BINP and the MGNP. Most of these are due to Uganda history of civil war, the great poverty of the area, and the high rate of population growth (3.1 percent) which puts pressure on an already weakened environment. Deforestation still occurs as local communities find it necessary to find fuel for cooking and for warmth. Increasing numbers of visitors also increase demand for fuel.
A variety of animal and plant species could be harmed as ecotourists overrun their natural habitats. The lands within the Bwindi and Mgahinga parks are remnants of the Afro-montane forest, a vanishing ecosystem. The only remaining population of the highly endangered Mountain Gorilla lives in Uganda. In August 1989, the Ugandan Game Department stopped gorilla tourism on the advice of biologists. Deaths of gorillas as a result of human contact and infection had been reported in neighboring countries. There was also a notable lack of professional supervision over Ugandan gorilla habitats. After the ban, steps to take to implement governmental policies for the integration of conservation into tourism were defined. The GEF-funded projects in Mgahinga and Bwindi contain elements which help the implementation of these agreements. More generally, tourists, even ecotourists, may not be so utterly conscious as to not litter along their way.
21. Number of Species
Uganda's Bwindi Impenetrable Forest is home to 300 mountain gorillas, about half the species' entire population.
22. Resource Impact
Although there is no time-series data, numerous studies have concluded that ecotourism has a positive impact on conservation efforts. Given the abundance of externalities - such as in the case for increased pressures on local fuel sources as a result of tourism - these conclusions are always very cautious.
23. Urgency of Problem - HIGH/MEDIUM
Ecotourism is a new concept, and, for the most part, serves, at the very least, to draw attention negative environmental and cultural impacts other forms of tourism may have. As enforceable standards will be slow coming, it is the responsibility of tour operators, ecotourists, and local communities to maintain the low- impact nature of ecotourism in respect to tourism, natural resource extraction, industrialization, and other development options open to the developing countries and regions in question.
The ecotourism project in Uganda is extremely new. It is also very flexible and adapts to problems, especially with regard to the needs of local populations, suggesting that the project and its positive benefits may be sustained.
24. Substitutes - NO
The Afro-montane forest is a vanishing ecosystem. There are only about 600 remaining Mountain Gorillas which do not have a good survival record in captivity. VI. OTHER Factors 25. Culture - YES Ecotourists often visit isolated areas which have not been "modernized" to any great extent. Even the most unobtrusive of guests leaves something of her- or his-self with those who have been visited. Despite the most strenuous training over the do's and don't's of photo-taking, gift-giving, and the like, cultural exchange is bound to be two-way. The tourist will gives just as he or she receives, and vice versa. Tourist training is important, though, inasmuch as it can successfully teach the well-off traveller that cultures need not be evaluated as good or bad, mine and not-mine, or even on a scale ranging from better to worse. Likewise, it is important to get across that the artifacts of one's culture are not superior to those of the host country.
In 1991, farmers living in the lands adjacent to the Bwindi rainforest park found themselves cut off from lands which they traditionally used for gathering firewood and plants. It soon became obvious to the NGOs involved in the project that the alienation which these poor farmers were feeling could lead to the demise of the Bwindi project. Realizing that without their feeling of ownership of the rainforest and the need for its conservation, measures to involve poor farmers in environmental, economic and community development were recently taken. The interest earned off the US$4 million GEF money is to be used for local community to build health clinics, schools, and to fund park management and research. In return for limited access to the park, this interest and additional revenues from tourist entrance fees to the park, farmers will be expected to help monitor that other farmers refrain from illegal activities like poaching and chopping down unapproved trees.
26. Human Rights - YES
With for the most part respectful of the desires of indigenous peoples, there are cases in which ecotourism, and especially tourism, may infringe on basic human rights. Certain cultural practices, such as funeral rituals, may be of intense interest to tourists, the is a question of whether their intrusion infringes on their rights to celebrate or mourn. While certainly less important than other life-and-death human rights cases, this is a very relevant issue.
27. Trans-Boundary Issues
These figure in insofar as regional travel is desirable or marketable, as in the case of the Middle East. In its assessment of potential scenarios for the Occupied Territories, the World Bank dedicated an entire volume to the development of the tourism industry, under the recognition that there is a great deal of pent- up demand for access to one of the centers of Western civilization. The World Bank forecast potentials
Trans-boundary issues could also come into play where countries wish to exploit ecotourism potentials in areas or on water-bodies which are shared or are up-stream or down-wind from polluting countries. Innumerable instances come to mind... Lake Victoria, the Mediterranean Sea, the Mekong River, the Amazon rainforest, the islands of the South Pacific seas.
Gender is an issue in all aspects of the tourist trade. While undocumented as an effect of ecotourism, the rise in tourist- related prostitution is widely recognized. Access to investment opportunities, wage-differentials, and discriminatory hiring practices for men and women involved in ecotourism have not been investigated. Women are the primary producers of the handicrafts which ecotourists inevitably buy. Increased demand for labor- intensive handwork could drastically increase the workload, as well as the incomes, of women. As does any development scheme, tourism and ecotourism projects need to have strong gender components.
Specific to the Uganda case is the fact that women's work became much more difficult when the park boundaries were tightened. Women had to travel much greater distances to find fuel, medicinal herbs, and other products of the rainforest which are used in daily life.
28. Relevant Literature
Caribbean Environment Programme/ United Nations Environment Programme. (1994). Ecotourism in the Wider Caribbean Region - An Assessment. CEP Technical Report No.31. Kingston (Jamaica): UNEP Caribbean Environment Program.
Castilho, Carlos. (1994). "Prospecting for Green Gold -- A Recipe for Success or Disaster?" WorldPaper, May.
Ecotourism Society. (1993). Ecotourism Guidelines for Nature Tour Operators. North Bennington (Vermont): The Ecotourism Society.
Global Environment Facility. (1995). Uganda: Bwindi Impenetrable National Park and Mgahinga Gorilla National Park Conservation. Project Document. Washington: World Bank.
Government of Uganda. (1990). "Uganda Tourism Development: Tourism Rehabilitation and Development Planning for Uganda." October.
Pleumarom, Anita. "The Political Economy of Tourism," The Ecologist, Vol.24, No.4, July/August 1994. pp.142-143.
USAID/Uganda. (1990). "Natural Resources and Tourism Management," Project Concept Paper.